Australia climate laws are under increasing scrutiny as the nation faces mounting challenges from climate change, biodiversity loss, and ecosystem degradation. Recent reforms, including establishing new environmental agencies and introducing mandatory climate reporting for corporations, signal a shift towards stronger governance and accountability. However, these measures have sparked debates over whether they go far enough to address the urgent environmental crises. Environmental advocates call for more robust protections, stricter enforcement mechanisms, and greater corporate responsibility to preserve Australia’s unique ecosystems. As the government navigates this complex landscape, the need for comprehensive and effective environmental legislation has never been more pressing.
Overview of Australia’s Unique Biodiversity and Australialia Climate Laws
Australia is renowned for its extraordinary biodiversity, characterized by a high level of endemism and a unique evolutionary history. The continent is home to approximately 600,000 to 700,000 native species, with estimates suggesting that 7% to 10% of all species on Earth can be found in Australia(Australia – Country Profile)This rich biodiversity includes 93% of flowering plants, 87% of mammals, and 94% of endemic frogs, meaning they exist nowhere else on the planet how do we know Australia is in a biodiversity crisis? A summary of the science. The isolation of Australia since the breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana has played a crucial role in shaping its distinct flora and fauna, allowing species to evolve in relative seclusion for millions of years.Australia’s biodiversity: Major features
However, Australia’s unique ecosystems face significant environmental challenges. Since European colonization, the country has experienced drastic declines in biodiversity, with over 100 species recognized as extinct, including 34 mammal species. Furthermore, more than 2,000 species are currently listed as threatened with extinction, highlighting the urgent need for conservation efforts. Habitat destruction due to agriculture and urbanization has led to fragmentation of ecosystems; some vegetation communities now occupy less than 1% of their original extent. Biodiversity. The condition of Australia’s native vegetation is variable, and while much of it remains intact, ongoing threats such as climate change exacerbate these challenges, complicating efforts to maintain ecological balance.
The interplay between Australia’s rich biodiversity and its environmental challenges underscores the necessity for effective conservation strategies. Protecting this unique natural heritage is not only vital for the species themselves but also for the ecological services they provide, which are essential for human well-being and sustainability. As Australia navigates these complex issues, concerted action will be critical to safeguard its remarkable biodiversity for future generations. through Australia’s climate laws.
Growing Public and Scientific Concerns Over Weak Environmental Protections
Despite existing regulations, public and scientific communities have raised concerns about gaps in enforcement and the effectiveness of environmental laws. The Australian Conservation Foundation (ACF) and Greenpeace Australia Pacific have consistently highlighted failures in protecting natural habitats (ACF Report, 2023). Reports show that land clearing in Australia has increased significantly in recent years, with over 680,000 hectares cleared in Queensland alone between 2018 and 2020 (WWF Australia, 20 Following are concerns of the public and Environmentalists
Weak Environmental Oversight of Australia climate laws
The recent establishment of the Environment Protection Australia (EPA) has been criticized for lacking sufficient independence and power, making it vulnerable to political interference from industries such as mining and fossil fuels. This situation raises concerns about the agency’s ability to effectively protect Australia’s unique ecosystems and biodiversity. Broken promises create a weak environment watchdog.
Australia climate laws need Legislative Reforms:
Proposed reforms to strengthen environmental protections have faced significant pushback, resulting in stalled progress. The current environmental laws, particularly the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation (EPBC) Act, are deemed ineffective and outdated, failing to adequately protect nature or address climate change impacts. The Conversation
Deforestation and Habitat Loss: Deforestation continues at alarming rates, with an average of 545,000 hectares of forest and bushland destroyed annually over the past decade. Loopholes in existing laws allow for unchecked habitat destruction, significantly threatening biodiversity and contributing to species extinction.
Threatened Species Decline: The number of endangered species in Australia has increased by 8% since the last State of the Environment report was released. Many species are facing extinction due to habitat loss, invasive species, and inadequate risk assessment processes. Australia’s environment is ‘poor and deteriorating’ says damning new report.
Lack of Effective Assessment Mechanisms:
A significant portion of land cleared for development—over 93%—was never assessed under national environmental laws, indicating a severe gap in regulatory oversight. This lack of assessment has detrimental effects on critical habitats for endangered species. State of the Environment
Political Influence on Environmental Decisions:
The appointment of a single individual to lead the EPA raises concerns about potential conflicts of interest, particularly if that person is influenced by powerful industry lobbies. This structure lacks the necessary checks and balances to ensure impartial decision-making.
Climate Change Impacts:
Australia’s environment is deteriorating due to climate change, which exacerbates issues like habitat loss and increases the frequency of extreme weather events. Reports indicate that marine heatwaves have led to mass coral bleaching on the Great Barrier Reef, further threatening marine biodiversity. Australia report reveals ‘shocking’ decline in environment.
Invasive Species Threats:
Introduced species such as feral cats and European red foxes are major drivers of mammal extinctions in Australia. The inability to control these invasive species poses a significant challenge to conservation efforts aimed at protecting native wildlife. Australia’s environment in ‘shocking’ decline, report finds
The Role of Environmental Laws in Achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
Environmental laws are essential for achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 13 (Climate Action), SDG 14 (Life Below Water), and SDG 15 (Life on Land). In Australia, these laws face significant scrutiny as they attempt to address pressing environmental challenges. While they provide a framework for sustainable development, critical shortcomings and hurdles hinder their effectiveness in meeting the SDGs.
Current Role of Environmental Laws
Australia’s Climate laws are designed to regulate human activities to protect ecosystems and promote sustainability. They align with international commitments, such as the Paris Agreement, and serve several critical functions:
Pollution Control: Laws regulating emissions and waste management are crucial for maintaining air and water quality, and ensuring compliance with national and international standards.
Biodiversity Conservation: Legal protections under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act) are intended to safeguard endangered species and ecosystems. However, the Act has been criticized for being outdated and ineffective.e
Resource Management: Environmental regulations guide industries like agriculture, forestry, and fisheries toward sustainable practices to minimize ecological harm.
Shortcomings of Australia Climate Laws:
Despite their importance, Australia’s environmental laws exhibit several critical shortcomings:
Inadequate Climate Provisions
The EPBC Act does not explicitly address climate change impacts. Since its enactment, 740 fossil fuel projects have been approved without assessing their greenhouse gas emissions or climate risks. This gap undermines Australia’s ability to meet its commitments under S.DG.
Biodiversity Crisis
Australia has one of the highest rates of species extinction globally. Over 1,918 species are listed as threatened, with many facing extinction due to habitat destruction and invasive species 5. The EPBC Act has failed to reverse this trend effectively.
Fragmented Governance
Environmental governance is fragmented between federal and state governments, leading to inconsistent protections. For example, land-clearing laws vary significantly across states, complicating the implementation of cohesive national strategies for biodiversity conservation.
Weak Enforcement Mechanisms
Loopholes in land-clearing regulations allow habitat destruction to continue unchecked. Over 93% of land cleared for development was not assessed under national environmental laws. This lack of enforcement has contributed to widespread ecosystem degradation.
Hurdles to Achieving the SDGs
Several hurdles impede the effective implementation of environmental laws aimed at achieving the SDGs:
Political Influence
Political interference often prioritizes economic development over ecological sustainability. Approvals for coal mining projects near sensitive ecosystems have raised concerns about government bias toward fossil fuel industries.
Public Participation Barriers
Communities face significant obstacles in engaging with environmental decision-making processes due to complex legal frameworks and high costs associated with legal challenges. This limits public advocacy for stronger protection. on
Delayed Reforms
Despite recommendations from the Graeme Samuel review in 2020—which described the EPBC Act as “ineffective”—progress on legislative reforms has been slow. Key proposals for introducing national environmental standards remain stalled.
Resource Limitations
Insufficient funding for regulatory agencies hampers their ability to monitor compliance and enforce laws effectively. The Australian National Audit Office found that only a fraction of approved projects are monitored post-approval due to resource constraints.
Current State of Australia Climate Laws
Australia climate laws are undergoing significant changes, reflecting a growing recognition of the need for stronger protections and effective governance in response to pressing environmental challenges. As of February 2025, several key developments highlight the current state of these laws, including the introduction of new legislation and the establishment of national agencies aimed at enhancing environmental oversight.
Recent Legislative Developments
Mandatory Climate Reporting:
In a landmark move, Australia has passed legislation mandating climate-related reporting for large and medium-sized companies, set to begin in 2025. This law requires companies to disclose climate-related risks, opportunities, and greenhouse gas emissions across their value chains. This initiative is part of a broader effort to hold businesses accountable for their environmental impact and align with global climate commitments.
Creation of Environment Protection Australia (EPA):
The Albanese government introduced the Nature Positive (Environment Protection Australia) Bill 2024 to establish Australia’s first national environment protection agency. This agency will have enhanced powers to issue ‘stop-work’ orders to prevent serious environmental damage and conduct proactive audits of businesses. The legislation aims to strengthen compliance and enforcement mechanisms, addressing concerns about illegal land clearing and habitat destruction.
Environment Information Australia (EIA): Alongside the EPA, the government is also establishing Environment Information Australia, which will provide up-to-date environmental data and information to the public. This agency is expected to release State of the Environment reports every two years instead of five, enhancing transparency and public access to critical environmental information.
Shortcomings and Concerns
Despite these advancements, significant shortcomings remain in Australia’s environmental laws:
Inadequate Climate Focus:
Critics argue that existing laws do not sufficiently address climate change impacts. The EPBC Act continues to allow high-emission projects without thorough assessments of their climate risks 5. Environmentalists emphasize that laws must reject projects with unacceptable climate risks and prioritize ecosystem protection
Fragmented Governance:
The division of responsibilities between federal and state governments leads to inconsistencies in environmental protection across jurisdictions. This fragmentation complicates efforts to implement cohesive national strategies for biodiversity conservation.
Weak Enforcement Mechanisms: While new penalties have been introduced, enforcement remains a concern. Past audits revealed that many developments may be breaching offset conditions without adequate oversight. The proposed fines for serious breaches are significant but depend on effective enforcement mechanisms being put in place.
Hurdles to Achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
The current state of Australia’s environmental laws presents several hurdles in achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs):
Political Influence: There are ongoing concerns about political interference in environmental decision-making processes, which can prioritize economic development over ecological sustainability
Public Participation Barriers: Engaging communities in environmental governance remains challenging due to complex legal frameworks and high costs associated with legal challenges. This limits public advocacy for stronger protections.
Delayed Reforms: Although there have been promises for reforming environmental laws under the Nature Positive Plan, some aspects have faced delays or indefinite deferral, leading to uncertainty about future protections.
Australia’s climate laws are at a pivotal juncture, with recent legislative developments indicating a shift toward stronger governance and accountability. However, significant challenges remain in effectively addressing climate change, protecting biodiversity, and ensuring sustainable development. Ongoing reforms must focus on closing existing gaps in legislation, enhancing enforcement mechanisms, and fostering public participation to achieve meaningful progress toward the SDGs.
Case Studies Highlighting Policy Failures
Australia’s environmental management has been marred by several high-profile failures, exposing gaps in governance, enforcement, and policy effectiveness. Below are key examples that illustrate these shortcomings:
The Great Barrier Reef
Despite extensive conservation efforts, the Great Barrier Reef continues to face mass coral bleaching due to rising sea temperatures and pollution. The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA) reported that as of 2024, 73% of surveyed reefs exhibited signs of bleaching, marking the fifth significant bleaching event since 2016 (Season 2 of our Reef in Focus podcast is out now). This ongoing crisis highlights the failure of Australia’s environmental laws to adequately address climate change, which is the primary driver of ocean warming. Additionally, agricultural runoff and coastal development contribute to water pollution, further stressing this World Heritage-listed ecosystem.
Deforestation in Queensland
Queensland has experienced alarming rates of land clearing despite commitments to protect forests. In a single year, approximately 222,000 hectares were cleared, threatening critical habitats for native species like koalas and contributing significantly to greenhouse gas emissions (Explore new WWF-Australia apparel). Weak enforcement of land-clearing regulations and loopholes in existing laws have allowed this trend to continue unchecked. This failure undermines Australia’s ability to meet its biodiversity conservation targets under SDG 15 (Life on Land).
Juukan Gorge Incident (2020)
The destruction of Juukan Gorge by Rio Tinto in 2020 exposed severe weaknesses in Australia’s heritage protection laws. The site, which held 46,000 years of Indigenous cultural significance, was destroyed despite objections from Traditional Owners. This incident revealed systemic flaws in regulatory frameworks that prioritize mining and economic interests over cultural and environmental preservation. Public outcry following the event led to parliamentary inquiries and calls for urgent reforms to strengthen heritage protection laws.
Murray-Darling Basin Water Management
The Murray-Darling Basin Plan was designed to ensure sustainable water use across Australia’s largest river system. However, it has been criticized for failing to deliver adequate environmental outcomes. Over-extraction for agriculture has resulted in declining river health and loss of wetland ecosystems Lack of coordination between federal and state governments has further complicated water management efforts, leaving critical ecosystems without sufficient water allocations.
Black Summer Bushfires (2019-2020)
The catastrophic Black Summer bushfires burned over 18 million hectares, destroying habitats and killing or displacing an estimated 3 billion animals (CSIRO, 2021). These fires were exacerbated by climate change and inadequate land management policies. The disaster highlighted failures in fire prevention strategies and a lack of preparedness for extreme weather events linked to global warming. Despite warnings from scientists about increasing fire risks, policies have not adequately addressed climate adaptation or mitigation.
These case studies underscore systemic failures in Australia’s environmental policies and governance. From climate change impacts on the Great Barrier Reef to deforestation in Queensland and the destruction of Juukan Gorge, these examples highlight the urgent need for stronger legal frameworks, better enforcement mechanisms, and greater accountability. Without significant reforms, Australia risks further degradation of its unique ecosystems and heritage sites.
Urgent Calls for Stronger Environmental Protections
As Australia faces escalating environmental challenges, there is an urgent call for stronger protections to safeguard its unique ecosystems and biodiversity. This section outlines key areas of advocacy, including the establishment of an independent Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), strengthening climate change policies, addressing biodiversity loss, and recognizing Indigenous knowledge in environmental law reform.
Push for an Independent Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Environmental groups and legal experts are advocating for the establishment of a national EPA to enforce environmental regulations independently. This agency would ensure accountability and compliance with environmental laws, addressing long-standing issues of inadequate enforcement and oversight. According to the Australian Conservation Foundation (ACF), the proposed EPA would have the authority to investigate illegal activities, impose penalties for breaches, and assess projects that may harm nature.
Recent discussions have highlighted the need for the EPA to be governed by a board rather than a single CEO to enhance its independence and effectiveness. The Environmental Defenders Office (EDO) emphasizes that strong governance arrangements are crucial for achieving environmental justice and protecting vulnerable communities from pollution and degradation ( Implementing Effective Independent Environmental Protection Agencies in Australia).
Strengthening Climate Change Policies and Carbon Emission Regulations
Australia remains one of the highest per capita carbon emitters globally, necessitating urgent reforms in climate policy. Experts recommend implementing legally binding emissions reduction targets to align with international commitments under the Paris Agreement. Additionally, phasing out fossil fuel subsidies is crucial for transitioning to a low-carbon economy (Lights Out: Ageing Coal and Summer Blackouts).
The current government has made some strides in addressing climate change; however, critics argue that more ambitious measures are needed to significantly reduce emissions and mitigate climate impacts on vulnerable ecosystems.
Addressing Biodiversity Loss and Habitat Destruction
To combat biodiversity loss and habitat destruction, advocates are calling for stricter land-clearing regulations and reforestation initiatives. Reports indicate that Australia has seen alarming rates of deforestation, with approximately 222,000 hectares cleared in Queensland alone in recent years.
Increased funding for national parks and wildlife corridors is also essential to protect critical habitats and facilitate species movement in response to climate change. These measures would support efforts to halt the decline of threatened species and promote ecosystem resilience.
The Role of Indigenous Knowledge in Environmental Law Reform
Recognizing Indigenous knowledge is vital for effective environmental management and law reform. Indigenous land management techniques, such as cultural burning practices, have been shown to reduce bushfire risks while enhancing biodiversity. Integrating these practices into contemporary land management strategies can improve ecological outcomes (Indigenous Fire Management Report, 2023).
Furthermore, strengthening legal protections for Indigenous heritage sites is crucial to preserving cultural identity and ensuring that Indigenous voices are included in decision-making processes related to land use and environmental management.
The urgent calls for stronger environmental protections in Australia reflect a growing recognition of the need for comprehensive reforms that address climate change, biodiversity loss, and social equity. Establishing an independent EPA, strengthening climate policies, enhancing biodiversity protections, and integrating Indigenous knowledge are critical steps toward achieving sustainable environmental governance. As Australia navigates these challenges, timely action is essential to safeguard its natural heritage for future generations.
Public and Political Response to Environmental Law Reforms
As Australia grapples with significant environmental challenges, public and political responses to proposed reforms in environmental laws have become increasingly prominent. This section discusses the role of environmental activism, government resistance to stricter regulations, and recent legal and policy developments.
Environmental Activism and Public Protests
Major environmental protests, such as the School Strike for Climate movement, have mobilized thousands of Australians to demand stronger climate policies. This grassroots initiative, which began in 2018, has seen students across the country walk out of classrooms to advocate for urgent action on climate change. In November 2023, thousands participated in rallies, supported by a “sick note” from scientists, highlighting their concerns over government inaction on climate issues (BBC News, 2023).
Participants voiced their frustrations at local government offices, demanding accountability for approving new fossil fuel projects. The movement emphasizes not only climate action but also climate justice, focusing on the disproportionate impacts of climate change on marginalized communities (Deakin University, 2023).
Government and Industry Resistance to Stricter Regulations
Despite growing public demand for stronger environmental protections, lobbying by mining and logging industries has often hindered the implementation of progressive policies. Industry groups argue that stricter regulations could threaten jobs and economic growth, leading to significant pushback against proposed reforms (Greenpeace Australia, 2023). This resistance has manifested in political debates where economic interests frequently overshadow environmental considerations.
For instance, the approval of new coal and gas projects has drawn widespread criticism from environmental advocates who argue that these decisions directly contradict commitments to reduce carbon emissions and combat climate change. The influence of powerful industry lobbyists remains a significant barrier to achieving meaningful reform in environmental legislation.
Recent Legal and Policy Developments
In response to public pressure and ongoing environmental degradation, the Albanese government has initiated a review of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation (EPBC) Act. This review aims to address shortcomings in current legislation and enhance protections for Australia’s unique ecosystems. Proposed changes include giving ministers broader powers to deny projects that pose unacceptable risks to the environment (ABC News, 2023).
Additionally, new biodiversity and climate adaptation policies are being discussed to improve ecological resilience and protect threatened species. These initiatives reflect a growing recognition of the need for comprehensive strategies that integrate climate action with biodiversity conservation.
The public and political response to environmental law reforms in Australia highlights a complex interplay between activism, industry interests, and governmental action. While movements like the School Strike for Climate demonstrate strong public support for urgent reforms, resistance from powerful industries poses significant challenges. Recent legal developments signal a potential shift towards more robust environmental protections; however, sustained advocacy and commitment will be essential to ensure these reforms are effective in addressing Australia’s pressing environmental issues.
The Way Forward: Recommendations for Stronger Australia Climate Laws
As Australia confronts escalating environmental challenges, there is a pressing need for comprehensive reforms to strengthen environmental protections. This section outlines key recommendations aimed at enhancing the effectiveness of environmental governance in the country.
Implementing a Stronger Federal Environmental Framework
Establishing a National EPA with Enforcement Authority to reform Australia’s Climate laws
Advocacy for a National Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has intensified, emphasizing the need for an independent body with the authority to enforce environmental regulations. This agency would be tasked with ensuring compliance and accountability across various sectors, addressing gaps in current regulatory frameworks (EDO, 2023).
Closing Legal Loopholes: Current environmental laws often contain loopholes that facilitate environmental destruction. Recommendations include amending existing legislation to eliminate these gaps, particularly concerning land clearing and pollution controls. For instance, the Nature Positive (Environment Protection Australia) Bill 2024 proposes measures to strengthen oversight and compliance mechanisms (Parliament of Australia, 2024).
Promoting Sustainable Economic Growth
Transitioning to Renewable Energy: To reduce reliance on fossil fuels, Australia must accelerate its transition to renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, and hydroelectric power. Implementing legally binding emissions reduction targets is essential for aligning national policies with international climate commitments (Climate Council, 2023).
Encouraging Sustainable Agriculture and Resource Management: Sustainable practices in agriculture and resource management can significantly mitigate environmental impacts. Policies should incentivize farmers to adopt regenerative practices that enhance soil health and biodiversity while reducing chemical inputs.
Enhancing Public Engagement and Accountability
Strengthening Transparency in Environmental Decision-Making: Enhancing transparency in how environmental decisions are made is crucial for building public trust. This includes making key information accessible and ensuring that decision-making processes are open to scrutiny (Greenpeace Australia, 2023).
Enabling Greater Citizen Participation:
Increasing opportunities for public participation in policy formation can empower communities to have a voice in environmental governance. Mechanisms for public consultation should be strengthened, allowing citizens to contribute meaningfully to discussions on environmental policies and reforms.
The recommendations outlined above emphasize the urgent need for stronger environmental protections in Australia. By establishing a robust federal framework through an independent EPA, promoting sustainable economic practices, and enhancing public engagement, Australia can better address its environmental challenges and work towards a more sustainable future.
Conclusion: Australia’s Climate Laws
As Australia grapples with significant environmental challenges, public and political responses to proposed reforms in environmental laws have become increasingly prominent. This section discusses the role of environmental activism, government resistance to stricter regulations, and recent legal and policy developments.
Environmental Activism and Public Protests
Major environmental protests, such as the School Strike for Climate movement, have mobilized thousands of Australians to demand stronger climate policies. This grassroots initiative, which began in 2018, has seen students across the country walk out of classrooms to advocate for urgent action on climate change. In November 2023, thousands participated in rallies, supported by a “sick note” from scientists, highlighting their concerns over government inaction on climate issues (BBC News, 2023).
Participants voiced their frustrations at local government offices, demanding accountability for approving new fossil fuel projects. The movement emphasizes not only climate action but also climate justice, focusing on the disproportionate impacts of climate change on marginalized communities (Deakin University, 2023).
Government and Industry Resistance to Stricter Regulations
Despite growing public demand for stronger environmental protections, lobbying by mining and logging industries has often hindered the implementation of progressive policies. Industry groups argue that stricter regulations could threaten jobs and economic growth, leading to significant pushback against proposed reforms (Greenpeace Australia, 2023). This resistance has manifested in political debates where economic interests frequently overshadow environmental considerations.
For instance, the approval of new coal and gas projects has drawn widespread criticism from environmental advocates who argue that these decisions directly contradict commitments to reduce carbon emissions and combat climate change. The influence of powerful industry lobbyists remains a significant barrier to achieving meaningful reform in environmental legislation.
Recent Legal and Policy Developments
In response to public pressure and ongoing environmental degradation, the Albanese government has initiated a review of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation (EPBC) Act. This review aims to address shortcomings in current legislation and enhance protections for Australia’s unique ecosystems. Proposed changes include giving ministers broader powers to deny projects that pose unacceptable risks to the environment (ABC News, 2023).
Additionally, new biodiversity and climate adaptation policies are being discussed to improve ecological resilience and protect threatened species. These initiatives reflect a growing recognition of the need for comprehensive strategies that integrate climate action with biodiversity conservation.
The public and political response to environmental law reforms in Australia highlights a complex interplay between activism, industry interests, and governmental action. While movements like the School Strike for Climate demonstrate strong public support for urgent reforms, resistance from powerful industries poses significant challenges. Recent legal developments signal a potential shift towards more robust environmental protections; however, sustained advocacy and commitment will be essential to ensure these reforms are effective in addressing Australia’s pressing environmental issues.
FAQs
Q1. What are Australia’s current climate laws in 2025?They include updated emissions targets, renewable energy incentives, and adaptation strategies.
Q2. Why is there debate over these laws?
Critics argue reforms are too weak, while supporters see progress toward sustainability.
Q3. How do Australia’s laws compare globally?
Australia lags behind the EU but is ahead of some regional peers in climate action.
Q4. Do these laws address climate justice?
Only partially—frontline communities argue they remain underrepresented in policymaking.
Q5. What’s at stake if reforms regress?
Australia risks climate vulnerability, trade impacts, and worsening environmental inequality.
